vu mgt402 Mid Term Subjective Solved Past Paper No.2

Despite the richness of the language infants receive in the first year of life, it is some time before they are able to speak themselves. Before they use language to communicate, they communicate with gestures. Well before 10 months of age, children engage in a lot of vocal behavior that appears to have some communicative value. Children's smiles and (most definitely) cries elicit parental behavior. Moreover, different cries are discriminated by parents, and these yield responses that differ in urgency as well as type. Still, these sounds are not true forms of intentional communication because infants do not display flexible, goal-directed behavior. For example, if a cry is ineffective in obtaining adult attention, young infants do not turn to another behavior, such as banging an object against the side of the crib. Thus, although infants' cries generally elicit parental responses, the infant is not using the cry for that purpose. Rather, it is simply a built-in response with predictable consequences. (topic 110)

The parallel access models propose that perceptual input about a word activate lexical items directly, and that multiple entries can be activated at once. That is, a number of potential candidates are activated simultaneously and the lexical item which shares the most features with the targeted stimulus is the one that is chosen. Examples of the parallel search model are Marslen-Wilson's cohort model, McClelland & Seidenberg's connectionist model, and Morton's logogen model. The factors that influence word access and lexical organization are addressed in both the serial and parallel processing models. At the present time, there is a greater acceptance toward the parallel access models than the serial search models when explaining lexical access specific concept. (confirm on your own as well)

A line of research that may be helpful in evaluating serial and parallel models concerns number agreement. In English, in order for a sentence to be grammatical there needs to be number agreement between subjects and either verbs or pronouns. Thus, we say The concerts this Summer have been wonderful, not The concerts this Summer has been wonderful, and The pitcher's fastball is his best pitch, not The pitcher's fastball is their best pitch. We sometimes make agreement errors that are instructive. For example, in sentence (5), the head noun (time) controls the correct form of the subsequent verb (is), but we sometimes err by using a form of the verb (are) that matches the immediately preceding word (games).
For example, the time for fun and games is over. (topic 90)

Slips-of-the-tongue are speech errors in which intended utterances are rearranged between other words or sounds. According to psychologist Gary Dell, slips-of-the tongue are significant because they show a person's widespread knowledge about language, including its sounds, structures, and meanings. There are three types of slip-of-thetongue errors. These types include sound errors, morpheme errors, and word errors. A sound error occurs when the sounds in words close by are exchanged. For example, instead of saying "flower pot," one says "power flot." A morpheme error occurs when morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units in language, are switched in words close by. For example, instead of saying "self-destruct instruction," one says, "self-instruct destruction." Word errors occur when actual words are rearranged. For example instead of saying, "reading a book to my dog," one says, "reading a dog to my book." Errors in speech production and perception are also called performance errors. (topic 80)

Diglossia not only defines a concept but also develops an approach to bilingualism which has been extremely influential. It originates from the fact that the co-existing languages of a community are likely to have different functions and to be used in different contexts. A distinction is made between High (H) and Low (L) language varieties and Ferguson noted nine areas in which H and L could differ. OR Two languages are spoken by a variable section of the population, but they are used in a complementary way in the community, one language or variety having a higher status than the other and being reserved for certain functions and domains.

Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to attend to and reflect upon the properties of language. This is hypothesized to be because bilingual children s knowledge of two languages may increase their understanding of language structure and overall language analysis abilities

1. language-processing skill
2. Marked and unmarked language choice
3. Three language rights

Variation in language contact

1. i. Duration
2. ii. Frequency
3. iii. Pressure

Internal factors

1. uses
2. aptitude (sex, Age, Intelligence, memory, attitude, motivation)

The meaning attached to local descent and dialect use- being part of the "local team"-is clearly seen when we consider those members of the community who dissociate themselves from this "team." Traditionally, in northern Norway the local community of equals was separated from the landowning commercial and administrative elite by a wide gulf of social and judicial inequality. Since the latter were the introducers and users of standard Norwegian, the standard form was-and to some extent still is-associated with this inequality of status. Many of the functions of the former elite have now been incorporated into the local social system. Individuals who fill these functions, however, continue to be largely of nonlocal descent. Although they may pay lip service to locally accepted rules of etiquette and use the dialect on occasion. Since the different social meanings which attach to the dialect are regular and persistent, they must in some way be reinforced by the pattern of social ties.

At a time when we use certain words or utterances which are equivalent to usage and utterances in other language.

"Open the light" in French is equivalent to "turn on the light" or "switch on the light" in English

Speech acts are the speaker's utterances which convey meaning and make listeners do specific things. (Austin, 1962). According to Austin (1962), when saying a performativity utterance, a speaker is simultaneously doing something. For example: Exchange greeting, telling jokes, giving speeches, requesting help, complaining etc